Info windows are the familiar pop-up balloons that often appear when interacting with features on a map. This activity is generally called data probing. For example, click on a Google Maps marker and up comes a little bubble with information about the place. The uses for data probing are seemingly limitless, ranging from the retrieval of map-based comments, annotations, and descriptions of ‘what’s here?’, to map stats and info graphics, to map use instructions (e.g., “get directions”), explanations (e.g., “group of 3 markers”), and controls (e.g., “zoom here”), to alternate map views (e.g., an historical map). All of this, of course, can come through in the form of text, photos, audio, and video.

Data probing is essential. In one sense, its needed because we’ve got tons of data about the world, but just small, low-resolution computer screens to view it all on. Like a drop-down list or an accordion menu on a Web page, data probing is a design compromise that can save space on maps. In another sense, however, data probing is an important design decision that can help direct map readers’ attention and understanding from the general to the specific by offering details on demand. Without data probing, we’d either have crazy-cluttered maps or watered-down maps not taking advantage of all of that rich data out there.

Of course, data probing is everywhere outside of mapping as well; on charts, graphs and all sorts of other info graphics. But here I focus on Web maps, specifically on info window design, and outline some major design considerations and provide a few examples that could help inspire your next effort.

Design Considerations
1) Size
Large footprint info windows hold lots of data but end up obscuring much of the map itself. Often, it’s the geographical context and the distribution of data around a probed location that’s helpful for a more complete understanding of a place. When an info window obscures the map, the missing section must be held temporarily in a user’s working memory until the window is closed. For this reason, it’s usually worth minimizing this kind of cognitive load and coming up with ways to make info windows more compact.

Compactness depends a lot on the volume of data that will wind up in the info window. Tiny, “tool tip”-sized window are great for small amounts of data, like a summary statistic, geographical feature name or ID, or a line of text. Larger windows, holding multiline text, images, etc., typically range between 250-350px wide and 100-400px tall. On some maps, both sizes can be used in tandem to good effect, like in the University of Wisconsin Campus Map (below).

University of Wisconsin Campus Map, showing large and small info windows.

Instead of expanding much beyond the larger size mentioned, its worth considering ways of organizing info window content to keep the footprint compact. One solution we really like is the idea of using tabs to categorize content and/or mini-slideshows for previewing distinct chunks of material. EveryBlock’s city maps and Stamen Design’s London 2012 map are good examples:

EveryBlock info window, showing mini-slideshow content.

London 2012 info window, showing tabbed content.

We also like the idea of info windows that re-size dynamically (within limits) to best fit their content. When content is just a bit larger than a probe window, this can prevent the need for a scroll bar, which just creates extra work for the map user. Conversely, when content is small, the window shrinks to fit, avoiding big blank spaces that unnecessarily obscure the map. Really large amounts of content, like a full news article, are probably best presented on a new page or somewhere off the map and retrieved via hypertext links (e.g., “full text”).

Avoid too much empty space.

2) Position
If we apply what we learn from Eduard Imhof’s work on label positioning, the preferred place for an info window attached to points and other small objects would be to the right and somewhat above it. In contrast, left and in-line positioning would be less desirable, although Imhof acknowledges that any placement is permissible and sometimes even necessary. Compared to positioning map labels, however, info windows are somewhat of a unique challenge. This is partly because they tend to be larger in size and partly because of our interest in keeping them on screen when opened near the edges of a map or application window.

Avoid cutting-off info windows.

Perhaps the most common approach to keeping info windows on the screen is to auto-pan the map. This works especially well if the map extent is limitless in all directions, because there’s no concern about auto-panning off the edge. Too much auto panning, however, can be disorienting, especially when the action itself is unexpected or the distance and speed of panning are too great. Auto panning can also be disrupting to users, due to a change in the map extent, which can alter the location or visibility of markers and data layers previously in view.

One ‘smart’ info window that I really like repositions itself left/right/top/bottom around a probed location to stay on screen AND minimize the amount of auto-panning. There’s a working example and source code for this by Dmitir Abramov. Maybe, a ‘super-smart’ info window would also be aware of related geo-data (e.g., map markers) and reposition itself to minimize contact with that, as well?

3) Stem
The info window stem is the visual link that connects it to a probed location. The problem of obscuring map context in the immediate spatial neighborhood can be solved by lengthening and/or shifting the stem along the window’s edge. It’s often the immediate geographical context that we’re most interested in, anyway. The question, ‘what’s near here?’ can be as interesting, if not more interesting than ‘what’s here?’. So, generally speaking, we prefer longish tails, but can think of cases where a short tail would be preferred (e.g., like on cell phone maps or other tiny map windows).

Longer stems can reveal neighboring map content.

Another option is to go without a stem at all, which keeps the area around a probed location totally open. The strong connection between location and info window is lost, but this can be restored to some degree with a highlighting technique, like in the The New York Times map, Geography of a Recession, below. Here, the highlight (black outline) gives users positive feedback and helps link it to the info window, which appears/disappears on mouse-over/off. For stemless windows that are persistent, (i.e., require a click to open and/or close) highlighting becomes even more important to maintain this visual connection.

New York Times info window without a stem.

4) Open/Close
Opening and closing an info window should be immediately obvious to users. The advantage of mouse-over windows, like in the NYTimes example above, is that they appear with almost no effort at all and can’t easily be missed. However, this ‘always on’ nature can make if feel ‘in the way’ sometimes, especially if finding non-probable map or window space takes work.

A really obvious “X” button in the upper right corner is maybe the most immediately obvious way to close a probe. Clicking ‘away’ from the info window itself can also be effective, as long as other uses for a mouse click are also considered. In other words, should an info window close upon click+drag map panning? (Probably not.) Should it close when another location is probed via mouse click? (Probably, yes.)

One option that I don’t see too much of is that for opening multiple info windows simultaneously. Two or more open windows is very basic, yet invaluable, way of comparing details across locations. Universal Mind’s LaunchPad demo (below) allows users to open multiple info windows and then drag-and-drop them anywhere on the map. A similar approach might give users the option of “pinning” info windows to the map at their stem points, thus maintaining stronger visual linkages to locations. Perhaps, the windows could also be repositioned, with stems changing in length and direction.

Universal Mind's LaunchPad, showing multiple info windows.

5) Look and Feel

• Drop Shadow. Drop shadows helps focus attention on info windows, elevating them above other map content and setting them apart from visually complex map backgrounds.

• Window Corners. Choice of square or rounded corners is mostly a stylistic decision. If rounded, make sure that the corner radius stays constant when scaling dynamically (9-slice scaling works well for this).

• Title. Window titles should help users answer basic questions like, ‘what are we looking at here?’, or ‘what is the name / address of this probed location?’

• Graphic Styles. Good use of type styles and colors, background color, and/or subtle divider lines can help organize content and go along way in making it faster and easier to read.

• Stem Position and Angle. Stems positioned too closely to a corner can appear somewhat unstable. An angled stem, as opposed to a stem that extends perpendicularly from a side, can add a bit of visual interest, but too sharp of an angle can appear awkward, as shown below. Corner-anchored stems, although more uncommon, distance a window farther from its location than side-anchored stems, assuming equal lengths. They seem to appear most stable when extending at about 45 degrees (see below).

Stems at steep angles or near corners appear less stable.

Corner stems appear most stable at a 45-degree angle.

Alternatives to Info Windows
There are plenty of examples in which data probing doesn’t bring up an info window at all. Rather, data is presented in some other part of the page or user interface. Although obscuring map surface area can be avoided this way, one issue to consider is split attention. This can weaken linkages and create more work for the user, whose attention has to be in multiple places–and potentially across large distances–on screen. OpenStreetMap and Flickr’s Yahoo! Maps mashup are both good examples of this alternative.

OpenStreetMap splits apart a probed location (blue outline) and its related info.

Flickr's map splits apart a probed location (white star outline) and its info.

Other Examples of Info Windows
1) Bing Maps
Mouse over/off to open/close. Dynamic window and stem positioning. No auto-panning. Short stem. Dynamic scaling.

Bing Maps

2) Google Maps
Click to open/close. Window and stem are fixed position. Auto-pan to stay on screen. Long stem. Dynamic scaling.

Google Maps

3) Stamen Design, Oakland Crimespotting
Click to open/close. Scrolling content. Fixed size and position. Short stem. Slight semi-transparent background.

Stamen Design, Oakland Crimespotting

4) Washington post, Time-Space: World
Modified Google info window. Click to open/close (small info window on mouse-over). Blue scroll buttons move between points in the cluster for a unique way of organizing content.

Washington Post, Time-Space: World

5) Yahoo! Maps
Click to open/close (small info window on mouse-over). Window and stem are fixed position. Auto-pan to stay on screen. Short, almost non-existent, stem. Dynamic scaling.

Yahoo! Maps

Lots of maps are coming out that document when, where, and how stimulus money is being spent through the ARRA, like these at the Foundation Center. With all of the reporting, accountability, and transparency required of ARRA grant recipients, I’m sure we’ll only be seeing a lot more of these in the future. Recovery.gov directs traffic to states’ Web sites where some of this data is appearing. I’m looking forward to seeing more and more mash-ups and interactive maps and graphics as developers and designers get their hands on this stuff and data from other sources that track stimulus money, like Onvia.

Our Map

For now, we decided to get involved by putting together a static map that shows where our ARRA tax dollars are going for energy-related programs administered by the DOE. As underlying layers, the map shows states’ historical energy consumption trends and their projected trends required to meet consumption goals set for 2012.

I’m sure we could all talk about the politics around ARRA funding and energy consumption and how this might or might not be shaped by patterns that the map does or doesn’t show. But to me, a few of the most interesting things about this map are related to its design:

1) Encoding data in state boundaries

I’ve always been attracted to National Geographic political reference maps, with their countries each outlined in a different color. On those maps, outline color clearly helps distinguish one place from another. Plenty of other maps use enumeration unit outlines to represent data, too, like those that categorize administrative boundaries using line weight, dashes and dots, etc. I wondered what was to stop the application of this idea to a thematic map? Why not try to take it one step further and encode numerical data, as opposed to nominal data, in unit outlines? I haven’t seem many examples of this.

The main limitations here are line weight and unit size. Line weight has to be heavy enough so that color can be seen and read. For my map, this seemed to work best above around 4 pts. Only thing is, as enumeration units get smaller, the outline can eat up more interior space and obscure the presence of a second data set, which in this case is the historical energy consumption trend, encoded using unit fill color. So, I had to cheat a little bit with some small states and states with small pieces (e.g., Delaware and Maryland) and decrease the line weights a bit under 4 pts. I don’t see this approach working very well with really small enumeration units like US counties, unless the map scale is really huge.

2) Color selection

The challenge here was to select colors for three data sets (historical energy, projected energy, and ARRA money) that not only encoded data properly but were harmonious (i.e., not competing or ugly). The historical energy data set has a natural midpoint around zero, so it needed a diverging color scheme. On the other hand, the projected energy data, having no midpoint, required a sequential scheme (thanks to ColorBrewer 2.0 for both sets of specs). Proportional rings for ARRA money just needed to be readable and look nice on top of the other colors.

Here are some earlier attempts at getting color right. In my first try, I used a grayscale sequential ramp for the historical data (state fill color), matching the middle value to the map’s background for a pseudo-diverging ramp feel. But this seemed overly subtle and downplayed the importance of clearly distinguishing states with decreasing and increasing energy consumption trends.

First attempt at color.

So, my next try was to replace the grayscale ramp with a true diverging ramp. Yuck. The mix of red outlines and fill colors bothered me on an purely aesthetic level. Other diverging ramps with other hues in them produced similarly ugly results.

Second attempt at color.

The final colors for historical energy consumption trends (blue-white-red) seem to best emphasize the data’s midpoint, with red doing its part to connote “alarm” in the states with a poor track record. The projected energy consumption data set is now lower down in the visual hierarchy (shown using a grayscale color ramp on state outlines), but this seems to be acceptable compromise. Using gray prevents these two ramps from competing for attention or overlapping and confusing the map reader. From my perspective, at least, it also results in an (yes, subjective) improvement in overall color harmony.

Other thoughts about the ARRA funding map? Please add them to the comments.

Recently, we took on a nice little print mapping project for a few hotels located in downtown Madison, Wisconsin. The project involved making a one-sided, page-sized map showing hotel locations and the locations of a few points of interest in the area. The idea was that hotel guests could use the map to find their way around downtown as well as get a sense for where they were staying in relation to the university, interstates, airport, etc. The map was to be printed in grayscale, plus 3 spot colors (red, yellow, and blue).

Before starting out, we discussed the possibility of sharing the project with those interested in seeing all the stuff that goes into designing a map like this. The map design process is notoriously difficult to articulate and we’re keen on the idea of making pieces of it more transparent, where possible. One option was to screen capture the hotel map as it appeared in the production software at regular time intervals from blank page to finished product. So, here is a sequence of 116 images, originally captured at 10-minute intervals, compiled to show the evolution of the hotel map in just under 2 minutes. Clearly, not all maps are made in the same way, but this should expose some of the kinds of design decisions made in a relatively simple project like this.

Watch the larger version of Map Evolution (990 x 766px) — best for seeing change in map details.

When we were building GeoCommons Maker! one of the key map design challenges we faced involved producing semi-transparent choropleth maps. Choropleth maps are perhaps the most common type of thematic map and are regularly used to show data that is attached to enumeration unit boundaries, like states or counties. Ever seen a red state / blue state election map? This is a basic choropleth. There are a lot of more sophisticated ways that choropleths can be made to best represent a given data set, for example, by playing around with classification, categorization, choice of color scheme, etc., but we won’t get into those here.

I want to talk about color. Traditionally, choropleth maps are read by looking at the general pattern of unit colors and/or by matching the colors of specific map units to a legend. Other reference data is often removed from the map because it is either, 1) not necessary to communicate the map’s primary message or 2) makes communicating this message more difficult. It could be argued, for example, that other reference map information, like green parks, gray airports, brown building footprints, and blue water distract readers from seeing the general pattern of choropleth colors on the map, which is where the map’s most important message can be found.

For GeoCommons Maker!, we wanted to allow people to make a kind of hybrid, semi-transparent choropleth map that would show both thematic data (colored choropleth map units) AND the rich reference information on popular map tiles (e.g., Google, Microsoft Virtual Earth) without sacrificing map reading and interpretation ability and confidence. We believe that there are lots of times when reference and thematic data can work extremely well together to really benefit a map’s message (e.g., a soils map that shows terrain or a vegetation map that shows elevation). So, we wanted to build this functionality into Maker!, and allow people to make maps that show the best of both worlds.

The Problem with Transparency

The fundamental problem with transparency is that the color of semi-transparent map units can shift due to the visibility of color that lies beneath them. This is not at all surprising, but can make the basic legend matching task difficult, obscure the pattern of color on the map, or just as bad, make patterns appear out of nowhere. Here’s a look at what happens to colors using the same semi-transparent choropleth map units on different backgrounds. These are screen captures from early design mock-ups for Maker!.

The first image shows (hypothetical) opaque choropleth map units with a 7-class color ramp. The next three images show the same units at 50% opacity on top of Google terrain, streets, and satellite imagery. Notice how colors shift when compared to the opaque map at top? See how lightly colored units nearly disappear on the streets map, and darkly colored units nearly disappear on the satellite map? Yikes!

Mock-up of an opaque, 7-class choropleth map for Maker! (Google terrain)

Same mock-up, at 50% opaque (Google terrain)

Same mock-up, at 50% opaque (Google streets)

Same mock-up, at 50% opaque (Google satellite)

The Solution to Transparency

We employed three design solutions to ensure that semi-transparent choropleth maps in Maker! would work, despite potential map reading problems: 1) unit boundaries, 2) data probing, and 3) transparency control.

1) Unit boundaries. In Maker’s choropleth maps unit boundaries are color coded but remain opaque, even when unit fill color is semi-transparent. This gives map users some true color information to work with, and should improve their ability and confidence to spot map patterns or match colors to a legend. In other words, while unit fill colors can get you close, unit boundaries can get you the rest of the way there.

Screen-shot from Maker! showing opaque choropleth unit boundaries

Corresponding legend for the above map

2) Data probing. We also took advantage of a relatively common and very helpful interactive map feature known as data probing. Exact values for any choropleth map unit can be obtained by clicking on them. In Maker!, we designed the data probing feature to go one step further and give values for all of the possible attributes associated with each map unit, not just the mapped attribute alone (see the scrolly list, shown in the probing pop-up below).

GeoCommons Maker! Data Probe

3) Transparency control. Finally, we gave mapmakers a transparency control, as well as a chance to take some responsibility for how well their maps communicate. The transparency control lets mapmakers decide what works and what doesn’t. Given the huge range of possible maps that can be made with Maker!, some user controls like this are necessary (as well as being kinda fun!). Here, transparency can be adjusted for a custom fit with any chosen tile set, color scheme, or other mapped data. Settings on the control (shown below) range from 50-100% opaque.

Screen-shot from Maker! showing the transparency control

The Best of Both Worlds

Our decision to include semi-transparent choropleth maps in Maker! should give mapmakers and map users the best of both worlds. A semi-transparent choropleth is truly a hybrid map in that it can potentially offer all the advantages of combining rich reference data (i.e., underlying tile sets) with great thematic data (i.e. overlying choropleth units). Hopefully the choropleth maps coming out of Maker! will be easy to read and good looking, too!